Progress in agriculture and pastoral pursuits was steady and continuous. The plough became large and heavy having a sharp point and a smooth handle and sometimes required as many as 24 oxen to draw it. Manure was known.

Different varieties Of Rice, Barley, Beans, Sesame and Wheat Were Grown. Fruit trees were cultivated. Two crops were harvested in a year. Among dangers to crops are mentioned drought, excessive rains, and pests.

Industrial life witnessed remarkable development and a variety of new occupations 0 those of fisherman, hunters, fire-ranges, charioteers, washermen, dyers, doorkeepers, and footmen, among others – came into existence. Specialization had gone very far, distinction for instance was made between the chariot-maker and the carpenter, the tanner and the hide-dresser and the maker of bows and the maker of arrow. Women worked as dyers, embroiderers and basket-makes.

        There was advance in the knowledge of metals. In addition to gold and ayas (variously translated as copper or iron) found in the Rig-Veda, there is mention of tin, lead, silver and iron.

        Niska, Satamana, and Krsnala were used as convenient units of value. Niska was probably a lump of gold of a definite weight, while Krsnala weighed one ratti. It is, however, doubtful, if these represented coins.

        Kingship became the normal form of government. There were also speculations about the origin of kingship. It is stated that having been continuously defeated by the demons, the gods elected Indra as king and were victorious in the end.

        The growth of king’s power, arising out of the increase in the size of the states and the replacement of old nobility by official hierarchy was further augmented by the widespread acceptance of the divinity of the king.

The king claimed to be the absolute master of all subjects except the Brahmanas. The commoners (Vaisyas) could be oppressed at will and the Sudras were liable to the expelled and slain at will.

        Samhitas refer to the Ratnins (members of the council of advisers) consisting partly of the king’s relations, partly of his courtiers and partly of heads of main departments of administration who assisted the king. There are references to the priest (Purohita), commander-in-chief (Senani), Charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Samgrahitr) and tax-collector, (Bhagadugha) and others who were heads of department. There were also the members of the royal court who included the crowned queen (Mahisi), chamberlain (Ksattr) and the game companion (Aksavapa). The village headman (Gramaji) was in charge of the village. To the earliest list, the Brahmana texts and among others the governor or chief judge (Sthapati) the huntsman, the courier, the minister (Saciva, Amatyal) etc.

        The king always sought the good grace of the assemblies and losing their favour or support spelt dire disaster for the king. It is, however, surprising to find that the Samiti, which gradually began to disappear from the time of the later Samhitas, completely faded out in the later Vedic age. Samiti in the Upanishads denotes only a learned body, sometimes presided over by a king. Sabha, instead of being a popular village assembly, continued as the king’s court, or privy council, or a judicial assembly.